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The California citrus industry depends on chemistry. The acidity of the soil and water influences the fruit trees. Chemists developed the insecticides and fungicides used by growers. Ripeness was determined by the percentage of citric acid in the juice. And finally, large quantities of inferior fruit were processed, by chemical means, into pectin and citric acid. Clearly, the citrus industry needed an accurate gauge of acidity, the problem that sent Glen Joseph to seek the advice of his old friend Arnold Beckman.
Chemists measured acidity by several methods. The most prominent was the colorimetric method familiar to most high school chemistry students. Slips of paper were coated with litmus—a water-soluble powder derived from lichens—then dipped into the solution under examination.
If the litmus-treated paper turned red, the solution was acidic; if it turned blue, alkaline. Color-coded charts helped the examiner determine the acidity of the solution.
A cheap test, but it is unusable in the citrus industry since the sulfur dioxide that was added to citrus juice as a preservative bleaches out the litmus. Chemists also used electrochemical methods which rely on ionic theory to calibrate acidity. In this theory, acidity is defined by the concentration of hydrogen ions: the greater the concentration, the more acidic a solution. The pH scale has values ranging from 0 extremely acidic to 14 extremely alkaline. Joseph used hydrogen electrodes in trying to determine the acidity of lemon juice, but again sulfur dioxide interfered with the test.
Joseph next tried electrodes which use glass as the contact rather than a metal wire or plate common in the hydrogen electrode. The glass electrode provided reliable readings as long as the equipment did not break, which happened frequently because of the need to use very thin glass to reduce resistance to the electrical currents that were being measured.
And if the electrode worked, invariably the galvanometer Joseph used to read the current failed. It was this problem that finally drove Joseph to call on Beckman, who immediately concluded that Joseph was using the wrong equipment.
The galvanometer was wrong, Beckman told Joseph, because it "just requires too much current. Use a vacuum tube voltmeter. And he realized that the solution to Joseph's problem was amplification, that is, Beckman understood that Joseph needed to make the current stronger. To do that, he needed sturdier glass electrodes, but unfortunately glass is a poor conductor. The conclusion to Beckman was obvious: Make a strong amplifier to increase current and combine it with a sturdy glass electrode.
As he later said, "the electronic amplifier would also have greater sensitivity than the galvanometer, so thicker-walled, more rugged glass electrodes could be used. A vacuum tube is a sealed glass bulb containing a cathode and an anode which transmit and receive electrical currents.
Between the two poles is a grid—a small metal mesh—which controls the flow of electricity. Small changes in the electrical current, which came from an outside source such as a battery, lead to greater changes—an amplification—in the current flowing between the cathode and anode. Beckman thought that by putting the pH measurement into the grid circuit of the vacuum tube the resulting reading would be amplified and could easily be read by an ammeter, a device for measuring currents.
Joseph left Beckman's office armed with a sketch using two vacuum tubes to amplify and then re-amplify the signal. But he soon returned saying that the device did not work. Beckman decided he would build the instrument himself, and this time it not only worked, it worked so well that Joseph was soon asking Beckman whether he could make another one just like the first.
Joseph's second request changed Arnold Beckman's life for it launched Beckman on a new career, turning an assistant professor of history into an inventor, entrepreneur and noted philanthropist. Glen Joseph's request for a second unit led Arnold Beckman to conclude that if Joseph "could use two of these [amplifiers to measure pH] in that little laboratory he has, maybe there's a market for them.
But more importantly, Beckman began to rethink his approach, soon concluding that the amplifier should not be a separate device but part of an integrated instrument to measure pH.
As Beckman later recounted, his initial patent, filed in , was not for a pH meter but rather for an amplifier. Chemists were just beginning to make use of electrical instruments in their research. This was usually done to meet a specific need and consisted of linking various devices together, which were then spread out on the workbench in a laboratory. Beckman changed this: Not only did he invent an amplifier that was innovative because of its sensitivity, but he also built an integrated instrument.
In other words, Beckman not only figured out how to measure pH accurately; he also revolutionized instrumentation by building the first chemical instrument in one compact unit that utilized electronic technology and which was portable. This simplified research as a chemist no longer had to assemble various components to test data. Now the chemist could purchase the instrument, provide a power source and immediately begin collecting data.
It was no longer necessary to assemble the requisite components and the chemist did not require much knowledge of the electronics.
This rather basic but innovative approach to instrument design provided the basis for the subsequent development of modern instrumentation by Beckman and others. Beckman's new instrument forced him to rethink his career. He was still an assistant professor at the California Institute of Technology, an institution that frowned on faculty that linked research with commercial endeavors.
Beckman later said he "was happy there, doing research and teaching chemistry. At the same time, Beckman realized the significance of the design of the pH meter and believed there was a market for what he called an "acidimeter," an instrument which chemists and technicians could take into the field to measure acidity.
His dilemma was simple: How could he, a Caltech professor, market his instrument? The answer to Beckman's quandary lay in making the acidimeter part of National Inking Appliance, a small business with which Beckman was already involved. Beckman's interest in National Inking began when I. National Postal Meter, based in Los Angeles, manufactured postage meters, and while the major supplier of the meters was Pitney Bowes, in the s National Postal Meter was a competitor.
But Lyons had a problem that threatened sales: His machines kept clogging. Beckman quickly concluded that pigment settling caused the clogging problem. Beckman told Lyons the solution was simple: Use butyric acid in the formula for making the ink. Unfortunately, butyric acid has an awful smell, and Lyons could not get any major ink producers to manufacture Beckman's formula.
Beckman then said he would produce the ink himself as a side project since he was still an assistant professor at the California Institute of Technology. A better ink was not Beckman's only involvement with National Postal Meter. Beckman also began collaborating with an inventor at the company, Hector Jewell, on ways to constantly apply ink to typewriter ribbons.
Beckman came up with two methods to apply the ink, both resulting in patents. Except as expressly provided above, nothing contained herein shall be construed as granting any license or right under any Beckman Coulter copyright. Nothing contained herein shall be construed as granting by implication, estoppel or otherwise any license or right under any patent or trademark of Beckman Coulter or any third party.
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About Us At Beckman Coulter Diagnostics, we are dedicated to advancing and optimizing the clinical laboratory. History Visionary leaders, groundbreaking results The history of our company is a history of innovation spanning more than eight decades.
Technological and geographic growth For both Beckman Instruments and Coulter Electronics, a series of acquisitions in the s and s complemented and expanded the business The s saw tremendous expansion in both products and facilities, with new sites in Europe. Beckman Instruments opened a sales unit in China Operations in the s and s focused on developing laboratory systems for biological analysis and transforming technology into solutions for clinical laboratories Beckman acquired the Access product line from Sanofi Diagnostics in to add immunoassay to the company's diagnostics product offering Beckman acquired Coulter Corporation in , adding hematology, flow cytometry and hemostasis product lines, giving the company the broadest portfolio of laboratory testing instruments available from one source and creating Beckman Coulter The Olympus Diagnostics Systems acquisition in added ultra-high throughput clinical chemistry systems, extending product breadth and geographic reach Acquired by Danaher in , Beckman Coulter continues to be a world leader in clinical diagnostics and life science research Continuing the founders' legacies today As Dr.
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